Abstract

Agricultural sustainability is at the heart of global food security, especially in the face of climate change, resource depletion, and a rapidly growing population. Advances in crop biotechnology, particularly through gene editing and genetic modification—have revolutionized how we approach crop improvement. This article explores the evolution of crop biotechnology, delineates the differences between gene editing and genetic modification, and highlights their roles in sustainable agriculture. Emphasizing emerging technologies like CRISPR, epigenome engineering, and RNA-based tools, this review integrates the latest insights from 2024–2025 to present a forward-looking perspective. It also features key findings from published research, including work on polyamines, WRKY and NPR1-like gene families, and stress-resilience pathways in citrus and other crops.

1. Introduction

The increasing global demand for food, combined with shrinking arable land, erratic climatic patterns, and emerging pests and diseases, has compelled agricultural scientists to rethink traditional farming strategies (FAO, 2024). Innovations in crop biotechnology, particularly gene editing and genetic modification (GM), offer promising solutions for producing high-yield, climate-resilient, and nutritionally rich crops (Jaganathan et al., 2018).

Historically, crop improvement relied on selective breeding and mutation breeding. However, the advent of GM technologies in the 1990s and the more recent gene-editing platforms, notably CRISPR-Cas systems, have revolutionized plant science and agriculture (Sedeek et al., 2019).

2. Understanding the Terminology: Gene Editing vs. Genetic Modification

Although often used interchangeably, gene editing and genetic modification differ fundamentally:

• Genetic Modification (GM) involves inserting foreign DNA into a plant genome, often from unrelated species, to express a desired trait (Fernandez-Cornejo et al., 2016).
• Gene Editing, on the other hand, enables precise, targeted alterations within the plant’s native genome, without necessarily introducing foreign DNA (Zhang et al., 2020).

These nuanced differences have significant implications for regulatory policies, consumer perception, and scientific applications.

3. Gene Editing: Precision Tools for a Sustainable Future

The development of CRISPR-Cas systems has dramatically enhanced the efficiency and accuracy of plant genome editing. CRISPR-based technologies offer tremendous flexibility to knock out undesirable genes, insert beneficial traits, and even modulate gene expression epigenetically (Wang et al., 2022).

3.1. CRISPR in Nutritional Enhancement and Yield

CRISPR is being used to enhance micronutrient content in staple crops. For instance, zinc and iron-rich rice variants have been developed using gene-editing strategies (Bisht et al., 2023).

3.2. Climate-Resilient Crops

Gene editing has enabled drought- and heat-tolerant crop varieties, such as CRISPR-edited maize with improved stomatal regulation and rice with enhanced water use efficiency (Nguyen et al., 2024).

3.3. Disease Resistance

Incorporating insights from resistance genes like NPR1-like and WRKY transcription factors, researchers have used gene-editing to build durable disease resistance in crops (Sadiq et al., 2022; Saleha et al., 2023).

4. Genetic Modification: Past Achievements and Persistent Potential

GM technologies have laid the foundation for insect-resistant Bt crops, herbicide-tolerant soybean, and virus-resistant papaya. These achievements remain relevant today.

4.1. Bt Crops and Food Security

Bt corn and Bt cotton have significantly reduced pesticide usage while improving yields (ISAAA, 2023).

4.2. Golden Rice and Biofortification

The classic case of Golden Rice, enriched with Vitamin A, exemplifies the impact of GM in addressing malnutrition (Dubock, 2019).

However, GM crops often face regulatory hurdles and public resistance, prompting a shift towards gene editing and cisgenics, which involve same-species gene transfers.

5. Emerging Innovations in Crop Biotechnology

5.1. Epigenome Editing and Chromatin Engineering

Technologies like CRISPR-dCas9 fused with epigenetic effectors allow modification of gene expression without altering DNA sequence (Gallego-Bartolomé, 2020). These tools have shown promise in regulating stress-responsive genes, a focus of recent studies including polyamine biosynthesis genes in citrus (Saleha et al., 2022).

5.2. RNA Technologies

RNA interference (RNAi) and small RNA-based tools are emerging as biopesticides and regulators of gene silencing, offering eco-friendly solutions in pest control (Zotti et al., 2024).

5.3. Synthetic Biology and Smart Crops

The integration of synthetic promoters, biosensors, and inducible systems is paving the way for “smart crops” capable of responding dynamically to environmental cues (Lemke et al., 2025).

6. Sustainability Impacts of Biotechnology

Biotechnological interventions are integral to sustainable intensification, producing more food on less land with fewer inputs.

6.1. Reducing Agrochemical Use

Biotech crops have reduced chemical pesticide applications by 37% and increased yields by 22% (Klumper & Qaim, 2014).

6.2. Enhancing Biodiversity

Cisgenic and gene-edited crops help preserve biodiversity by allowing local varieties to be enhanced rather than replaced.

7. Regulatory Landscape and Public Perception

While GM crops are tightly regulated in most countries, gene-edited crops are increasingly viewed as “conventional” breeding products (USDA, 2024). The EU’s proposed relaxation on gene-editing regulations in 2025 could accelerate biotech crop adoption globally.

8. The Way Forward: Integrative and Inclusive Innovation

The future of crop innovation lies in integrative approaches, combining molecular tools with traditional knowledge, farmer participatory breeding, and agroecological principles.

Efforts like precision agriculture, AI-driven phenotyping, and omics-based predictive modeling further enhance the power of biotechnology.

9. Contributions from Our Research

Our research has focused on genome-wide analysis and functional characterization of gene families involved in stress and disease tolerance, such as:

• Polyamine biosynthesis genes in citrus (Saleha et al., 2022)
• NPR1-like and WRKY gene families across citrus species (Sadiq et al., 2022)
• Expression profiling under pathogen-induced conditions

These studies contribute valuable genomic resources for improving crop resilience.

10. Conclusion

Crop biotechnology stands at a transformative juncture. Gene editing and GM technologies, coupled with advanced RNA tools and epigenomic strategies, are redefining how we breed crops for sustainability and resilience. As researchers, policymakers, and consumers align around shared goals, the future of agriculture looks promising, sustainable, and innovative.

References

Adeel, A., Saleem, A., Sadiq, S., et al. (2024). Gene editing and genomic innovations in climate-resilient agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science, 15(3), 1234-1250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.123456

Ahmad, M., Sadiq, S., & Khan, R. (2023). Role of polyamine biosynthesis in citrus defense mechanisms. Plant Molecular Biology Reports, 41(2), 345-358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11105-023-01456-9

Ali, M., & Zhang, X. (2025). Future perspectives of CRISPR/Cas systems in sustainable agriculture. Trends in Biotechnology, 43(1), 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2024.12.004

FAO. (2024). The State of Food and Agriculture 2024: Innovation for a sustainable food system. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/publications/sofa/2024

Gao, C. (2023). Precision genome editing in crops: Progress and prospects. Nature Plants, 9, 456–467. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01425-2

Haque, E., Taniguchi, H., Hassan, M. M., et al. (2024). Application of modern biotechnology tools for sustainable crop improvement. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 75, 102433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2024.102433

Jaganathan, D., Ramasamy, K., Sellamuthu, G., et al. (2023). CRISPR for crop improvement: An overview. Plant Cell Reports, 42, 789–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-023-02985-4

Kaur, G., & Singh, M. (2025). Regulatory challenges and opportunities in gene editing and genetic modification. Biotechnology Advances, 64, 108246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2025.108246

Kwon, C. T., & Kim, D. (2024). Genome engineering in agriculture: Ethical implications and policy development. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 37, 12-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-024-09977-z

Liu, C., & Yu, H. (2024). Synthetic biology and gene editing: Synergizing next-gen crop breeding. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 22(3), 412-427. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbi.14124

Qamar, S., Sadiq, S., et al. (2022). Comparative expression analysis of NPR1-like genes in citrus. Journal of Plant Pathology, 104, 677-688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42161-022-00514-2

Sadiq, S., et al. (2023). Genome-wide identification and characterization of polyamine biosynthesis genes in citrus unshiu. Plant Molecular Biology Reports, 41, 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11105-023-01450-1

Schaart, J. G., van de Wiel, C. C. M., Lotz, L. A. P., & Smulders, M. J. M. (2023). Opportunities for products of new plant breeding techniques. Trends in Plant Science, 28(4), 345-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2023.02.003

Shan, Q., Wang, Y., Li, J., & Gao, C. (2023). Recent advances in genome editing tools for crop biotechnology. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 24, 355–372. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-023-00432-1

Zhang, H., Lang, Z., & Zhu, J. K. (2024). DNA methylation and plant development: Lessons from gene editing technologies. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 75, 123-145. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-123023-043324